Andes in 1800s: Republics

Inca infrastructure overlays older societies; Spanish colonialism remapped belief and land. Indigenous languages and festivals remain political present tense. No. They were one expansive state among many Andean societies. See the high-altitude diversity page — adaptations are traits, not a league of types.

Andean domestication is foundational to world food history. Quechua and Aymara remain millions-strong with regional variation. Catholic festivals often carry Andean mountain devotion underneath. Extractive economies shape migration and ritual calendars still. Indigenous Americas; high-altitude diversity; trade-routes.

Colonial casta systems were social law — not biology we endorse. Highland and coastal societies intensify. Moche, Nazca, Tiwanaku and others flourish. Inca expansion builds roads and admin. Rebellion reopens indigenous politics. New states inherit unequal land regimes. Land and language politics intensify.