American Civil War (1862): Antietam · 327

Union, emancipation and an industrial republic The Civil War was a political war about a slaveholding republic that became, through arms and amendments, a different constitution -- then a contested memory. Lincoln's 1860 election, without southern electoral votes, triggered secession conventions. The Confederate constitution explicitly protected slavery. Sumter forced the upper South to choose; Virginia's departure put the war's capital pair -- Washington and Richmond -- a hundred miles apart.

Border states (Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri) were a campaign of politics as much as of armies. Lincoln's early aim was union. The 1 January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, tied to the Antietam moment, made freedom a Union war aim for Confederate-held territory and opened large-scale Black enlistment in USCT regiments.

Britain and France stayed out; the cotton famine did not buy Confederate recognition once emancipation recast the war's meaning abroad. In the east, Lee's Army of Northern Virginia won famous battles and lost the war. In the west, Grant and the rivers -- Forts Henry and Donelson, Shiloh, Vicksburg -- cut the Confederacy. Sherman's 1864 Atlanta campaign and March to the Sea were political warfare against a slaveholding society's capacity.