Civil Servant in 1922: Weberian bureaucracy and the welfare state

What is the difference between a civil servant and a politician? A politician is elected or politically appointed, sets policy direction, and leaves office when voters or a new government changes hands. A civil servant is a permanent, career employee of the state, hired competitively rather than elected, expected to implement whatever policy the government of the day sets and to serve an incoming minister with the same professional neutrality as the outgoing one.

Most countries require a university degree, then a competitive entrance process: a written examination, an assessment center, or both. India's Civil Services Examination, France's INSP concours and Japan's National Public Service Examination are among the toughest; other systems, including much of the US federal government, hire more directly against posted vacancies and qualification standards rather than a single unified exam.

It varies enormously by country and seniority. A UK Fast Stream graduate starts around £28,000; a mid-career French attaché earns roughly €35,000–€45,000; senior US federal executives are capped near $221,000 by law. Singapore and Australia pay their most senior career officials far more, deliberately benchmarking against private-sector executive pay, while junior officials in lower-income countries often earn only a modest professional wage.